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70. RELIGIOUS PRACTICES: Role of Saints & Martyrs

Culture,

What is the definition of a saint?

  • Who becomes a saint?
  • How do they attain this status?
  • Compare this to what you believe a saint is.

What is the definition of a martyr?

  • Who becomes a martyr?
  • How is this status attained?
  • Do martyrs become saints?
  • Compare this to your description of who becomes a martyr.

Is the status of sainthood or martyrdom a generally acclaimed designation?

Or is it a strictly ecclesiastical decision as to who becomes a saint or is declared a martyr?

Are ancestors also honored?

  • If so, what role do they have in contrast to the roles of saints and martyrs?
  • How does remembering saints and martyrs benefit the individual? the community? the nation?

Are saints and martyrs honored at special ceremonies?

  • Does each have a special day when they are remembered?
  • What is done on that day or at that special occasion?
  • Are there certain locations associated with saints or martyrs?
  • Where are these, and what is the association?

Are children named after saints and martyrs? Why?

71. RELIGIOUS PRACTICES: Religious Icons

Culture

Charms are objects or words which are considered to be magically endowed and thus effective against evil and able to attract goodness. Amulets are charms or inscribed ornaments worn on the body.

  • Are such items used in your new culture?
  • If they are worn openly, ask why the object is worn (just decorative, for warding off evil, illness or accident, for insurance of good health, good business dealings, or good crops, etc.)
  • If none are noticed, ask how a person is protected against evil influences.

What types of objects are used as charms or amulets?

  • How do they get invested with their power?
  • By the prayer of a religious leader?
  • Where are the objects placed on the body?
  • Do they have writings from their holy book inscribed on them, or tucked inside them?
  • Are some of these writings designed to be eaten or drunk in some way?

Are there icons or pictures in the worship place?

  • Who made them?
  • Are they honored in any way during the service? by individuals?
  • Do people have such objects in their homes? Where?
  • What is done with them?
  • Are they on display at all times or only on special occasions?
  • How do these help the individual or the congregation as they worship?

What other charms are used and for what purpose?

  • Look for magical designs hung in public transport, evil eye pictures, black rags hung in certain places, old cooking vessels on the corners of buildings, small pictures of objects used in the business hung on the walls, anything else that seems out of place or different to you.
  • Ask what the meanings of these are.
  • Some may have magical powers, but some may be strictly decorative—but you won’t know the difference until you ask!

What natural things have magical powers (like bits of wood, certain stones or plants, animal parts)?

  • When are these used?
  • Are there certain places that have magical connotations, as a mountain, a tree, a river, etc.?
  • What legend or story is behind such locations?

72. RELIGIOUS PRACTICES: Religious Practitioners

Culture

Begin this exercise by asking your friends about what they appreciate and look for in a religious practitioner—one who they feel would meet their spiritual needs.

Note if these lean more toward a knowledge of religious practices and dogmas or toward social skills and personality. Does availability factor in? What other attributes do they mention?

Are these positions hereditary (passing from father to son, or held within a certain family)?

  • Or are they earned in some way?
  • Or are practitioners appointed by a governing body?
  • Does the congregation have a say in who their religious leader will be?
  • If so, how is this done?
  • How is the appointment announced to the congregation?

For any of these scenarios, is there a special induction ceremony? Describe.

Who officiates when and where people gather for worship?

  • Is there a hierarchy that is observed, and what terms are used for each (as senior pastor, assistant pastor. etc.)
  • What are the duties of each?

Does educational training or religious experience determine the status of each position?

  • Where and how is educational training obtained?
  • What kind of diplomas or degrees are available?
  • Are courses, seminars, etc. available during the year for further education or for spiritual refreshment? Are these open only to practitioners, or can the public also attend?

73. WHAT’S IN A NAME?

Culture

Do names have meaning? Do they have significance?

What determines the name a baby would receive? A family name come down through the generations? a national or religious hero? Desired characteristics? The day, month, or season when born? After a geographical area? After things in nature, as trees, flowers, heavenly bodies? Other?

Is there a tendency for some kind of pattern to be followed within a family; as, do all names begin with the same letter or syllable? or do they end with a rhyming syllable? If this is the case, how widespread is the practice?

Who names the child—the parents, or grandparents? A prestigious member of the community? Is a person expected to live up to the meaning of his/her name? Is there an auspicious time for naming a child? How is this determined?

Is a person’s name ever changed? For what reason?

Are names shortened for common use? How is this done? Collect some and see if there is a pattern which is followed. Are children ever given a household “pet” name? If so, how long does that name remain in use? Are nicknames used? Are they descriptive of the person, relate to their occupation or talent, or some other criterion?

What power is thought to be in a name? Are there times you should not call a person by his/her name? Why? Are there any names that are taboo or unacceptable for some other reason? What is that reason? What names are most desirable?

Are there names which are popular now which were not popular a generation or so ago? What were popular names back then? What are the popular names now?

74. HUMOR – General

Culture, ,

What makes people laugh? When they are embarrassed? When someone says something perceived as funny? Children at play? Other reasons?

Who do they poke fun at and when? children? adults? people they know well? people from another group? How does the target person or group react to this? What are acceptable methods of teasing someone?

What inflections or voice modulations are used to indicate a humorous statement in contrast to a serious one? What about accompanying body language?

Are there stories or legends about a comic person (as Don Quixoti)? Do these teach a lesson as well as provide an opportunity for a laugh? On what occasions are such stories retold? Look at or listen to one with a friend and retell it to another friend along with your understanding of its meaning.

Are there ethnic jokes about another tribe or nationality? Are these said with hatred? with sarcasm? in good fun?

As you investigate this topic, see if there are areas where humor would differ in your own country. Are there incidents in your new culture which are considered humorous or witty but would be regarded as insult or damaging in your native culture—and vice versa?

75. HUMOR – Specific

Culture, ,

Are there humorous radio or TV programs? What topics are covered? Are these family or adult oriented? Watch or listen to one of these programs and isolate the humorous elements. Who did or said what to whom? Was one person or object the target? Why? Did the episode have teaching or merely entertainment value?

Are there people who make their living by entertainment? Is this gender specific?

What is their role in society? Are they respected? Are they all members of one tribe, clan, or family? Do they ply their trade only on the media, or are there local venues or spontaneous opportunities available? If so, who are the targeted audience—children? adults? men? women? anyone?

Is there a newspaper with cartoons or a comic section? What or who is their subject?

76. CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS: Ideal vs. Actual Behavior

Culture,

Refer to information and insights about behavior you observed from past assignments. Then talk to as many people as you can to try to get an overall picture of the kind of behavior people admire.

Focus on particular roles in the culture, such as husband, wife, son, daughter, mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, kinsman, friend, ancestor, religious or political leader, villager or neighbor, etc. Try to get people to verbalize what they think are the characteristics of a “good husband,” “best friend,” etc. What general and specific qualities emerge as ideals? How do these compare with the ideals of your native culture?

Some qualities to focus on could be uniformity vs. individuality, cooperation vs. competition, generosity, industriousness, obedience to parents, behavior proper for one’s gender, control of one’s emotions, etc.

Reflect on what you have observed of the culture and its people. What differences are there between what people say should be done and what they actually do? Don’t be too critical, however; no culture lives up to its ideals, though it tries to.

Certain deviant patterns may actually provide a safety valve for the release of tensions which the ideal produces. By having such a culturally sanctioned release, the ideals may be maintained since people know there are times and places when they may let loose emotions or actions which would otherwise be frowned on. As you discuss this with various people, see if you can identify what such culturally acceptable deviations might be. You might see someone acting in a strange manner. Ask what the back-ground of this might be—a culturally acceptable deviation?

Talk about your findings with fellow co-workers and discuss what might be culturally acceptable in your own country, but might not be in your host country. What changes need to be made?

77. CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS: Taboos

Culture, ,

Taboos are prohibitions attached to certain objects or actions. The violation of taboos is believed to cause dire consequences (bad luck, disease, death) to the guilty person or to the community. Taboos are thus a type of negative law, having both social and ritual effects. Make a list of taboos, noting when, where, and by whom the object or activity is taboo.

To get started, consider the almost universal taboo against incest; the abominations listed in Leviticus 11, 18, 19; the prohibition in Buddhism against a woman touching a monk; Islamic dietary restrictions, etc.

Are there names of people or things which one must not say? Are there animals which must not be eaten, at least on certain days? Are there people one may not speak to or touch? Are there places one may not go, or where certain things may not be done?

Are there certain relationships within the family or within the community which are forbidden? Are there certain areas of a house or a public area which are off limits?

Are there taboos on when, how, or by whom a ritual object may he touched, used, looked at, etc.? What about where those objects should be placed?

What penalties are there for violation of the taboos? Are there stories about people who violated them and were punished? What part do natural calamities have? or spirits or gods (be specific)?

How can the effects of a violated taboo be averted? Note the details for each type of taboo.

How did particular taboos get started? Are taboos associated with charms and amulets so that they will remain magically effective? How can violations of taboos come to be known, especially if they are violated unwittingly?

78. CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS: Change? or Keep the Status Quo?

Culture, ,

What is the local attitude towards change and progress? This assignment will focus on attitudes regarding outside ideas, values, goals, and attitudes, and their adoption or rejection.

How threatening is the prospect of change? Is there a difference in the way older people view changes in their society and the way the younger generation views them?

Is all change viewed as progress? Why or why not? If so, what kind of progress is envisioned? Is there a general feeling concerning the kind of progress that would be desired? Is there a goal for the community? for the nation? How many are for it, and how many against? Why?

How much change would be tolerated? At what rate could productive change happen without sparking objection and confusion? Think about issues concerning air pollution control, mechanization of agricultural machinery, compulsory education through high school, etc.

Try to set up situations which would elicit information from people about the following topics:

1)     What things are different now than they were when you were a child? Which changes have been good? Why? Which   things should not have been changed? Why?

If you could, would you return to the old ways or not? Why or why not?

2)     What are the main problems in this community? What should be done about them?

What could or should the government help with, and what should the people themselves do? If government help was accepted, what would the obligations be for the community in the line of taxes, military conscription, etc.? Would this be a deterrent? Would it give impetus to the community to do it themselves? Would this promote a community spirit?

3)     If an outsider came to the village and said he could help you to have better farming methods, cash crops, health services, living conditions, education, etc., what would he have to demonstrate or guarantee before villagers would change to his way? If you thought his suggestions were good, would you change even though most of the village decided not to? Why or why not?

79. CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS: Identification

Culture, ,

Try to encourage your friends to identify the characteristics, activities, philosophy that identify them as the member of a nation, tribe, clan, group, club, or any other kind of organization.

What are the most important things that identify a person as a national of your host country? Dress? Language? Civil involvement? Religion? Property ownership?

Of these, which are the most important to maintain? How does one know that a person who might look the same outwardly is a foreigner?

How important is it for a person (a student overseas or in another city, an immigrant) to maintain this identification in his/her new environment? If the individual or family returns to their native country for a visit, what would the expectations of their relatives be concerning their fitting back into the cultural picture?

What would be the expectations of the visitors in regard to acceptance and understanding?

What are the important factors in identifying members of nearby tribes or clans? What makes them different? What factors are at work to erase some of the identification boundaries? Some ideas to research: urbanization, education, national pressure, environmental factors, etc. How concerned are people about these?

When outsiders come to their area for a visit, what things do they sometimes do that offend residents? What important “do’s” and “don’ts” would be helpful to tell them so they could fit in better?

Are there various groups or clubs in the society at large, as community service, charitable organizations, those with an occupational or common interest focus, as hunting, needlework, cooking, etc. ? How does one become a member of such a group? How does one maintain membership (pay dues, attend so many meetings, etc.)? How do “outsiders” identify them as members?